Research and Critical Views

There is much anecdotal evidence about benefits of outdoor education experiences; teachers, for example, often speak of the improvement they have in relationships with students following a trip. However, hard evidence showing that outdoor education has a demonstrable long-term effect on behaviour or educational achievement is harder to identify; this may be in part because of the difficulty involved in conducting studies which separate out the effects of outdoor education on meaningful outcomes.

A major meta-analysis of 97 empirical outcome studies indicated a moderately positive overall effect of adventure education programs on outcomes such as self-concept, leadership, and communication skills^[4]. Interestingly, this study also indicated that there appeared to be ongoing positive effects, unless most educational interventions whose effects tend to fade. The largest primary empirical study of the effects of outdoor education programs (mostly Outward Bound programs) found small-moderate short-term positive impacts on a diverse range of generic life skills, with the strongest outcomes for longer, expedition-based programs with motivated young adults, and partial long-term retention of these gains. ^[5]

In "Adventure in a Bun", Chris Loynes^[6] has suggested that outdoor education is increasingly an entertainment park consumption experience. In a controversial paper critiquing the algorithmic paradigm^[7], Loynes has also called for an increase in “creativity, spontaneity and vitality". These dialogues indicate a need for those working in outdoor education to examine assumptions to ensure that their work is educational (Hovelynck & Peeters, 2003)^{[citation needed]}.

Outdoor education has been found more beneficial to those students who find classroom learning more challenging^{[citation needed]}. This may be due to a non-academic family background, a personal psychological trait such as Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, or because they are boys^[8].

When German children from forest kindergartens went to primary school, teachers observed a significant improvement in reading, writing, mathematics, social interactions and many other areas.^[9]

Using the Environment as an Integrating Context for learning (EIC) is the foundation of a substantial report^[10] which found benefits in learning outside the classroom on standardized measures of academic achievement in reading, writing, math, science, and social studies; reduced discipline problems; and increased enthusiasm for learning and pride in accomplishments.

Trends

Philosophy and theory about outdoor education tends to emphasise the effect of natural environments on human beings, the educative role of stress and challenge, and experiential learning.

One view is that participants are at their "rawest" level when outdoors because they are "stripped" of many of the conveniences of modern life. Participants can become more aware that they are part of a greater ecosystem and are not as bound by social customs and norms. In essence participants can be true to themselves and more able to see others as people regardless of race, class, religion etc. Outdoor education also helps instill the basic elements of teamwork because participants often need to work together and rely on others. For many people a high ropes course or an outdoor activity may stretch their comfort zone and cause them to challenge themselves physically which in turn can lead to challenging oneself mentally.

The roots of modern outdoor education can be found in the philosophical work of:

• Comenius
• John Dewey
• William James
• Aldo Leopold
• John Locke
• John Muir
• Jean-Jacques Rousseau
• Henry David Thoreau
• Pestalozzi

Foundational work on the philosophy of outdoor education includes work by:

• Kurt Hahn
• Willi Unsoeld

A wide range of social science and specific outdoor education theories and models have been applied in an effort to better understand outdoor education. Amongst the key theoretical models or concepts are:

• Experiential education theories
• Group development theories
• the Outward Bound Process Model^[3]
• Stress, optimal arousal, comfort zone, and psychological flow theories
• Psychoevolutionary theory and the Biophilia hypothesis